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NUR631 / NUR 631 Midterm & Final Exam | Advanced Physiology and Pathophysiology Exam | Questions and Verified Answers | 100% Correct | Grade A – GCU | Latest 2025 / 2026 Update

HEAL100 Health Care — exam and revision material · Other

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Health Care exam material, 52 pages. Originally published on StudyMerit.

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52
Academic year
2025/2026
Language
English

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1 Final Exam Study Guide: NUR 631 Topic 1 : • Cell structure: Nucleus, Nucleolus, DNA/RNA, mRNA, tRNA, Cell membrane, Ribosome, Lysosome, Mitochondria, Smooth ER, Rough ER, and Golgi complex. o Nucleus : Control center of the cell that directs the cell's activities like City Hall (Mayor). o Nucleolus : the central membrane - bound organelle that manages cellular functions. Contains DNA o DNA : Each strand is made up of nucleotides, which in turn consist of a sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). The sequence of nucleotides in DNA encodes information f or building and maintaining an organism. Found in nucleolus. o RNA : It also consists of nucleotides, with a sugar (ribose), a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), uracil (U), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). RNA is involved in various cellular processes, including protein synthesis. Found in cyt oplasm. o mRNA : type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) molecule that plays a crucial role in the process of protein synthesis in cells. It serves as a temporary copy of the genetic instructions encoded in DNA, carrying this information from the cell nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where protein synthesis occurs. o tRNA : helps in the actual assembly of amino acids into a protein at the ribosome. It acts as an adaptor molecule that interprets the genetic code in mRNA and brings the appropriate amino acid to the growing polypeptide chain. o Plasma membranes : flexible boundary between the cell and its environment; allows materials such as water and nutrients to enter and waste products to leave. Amphiphilic: meaning has Hydrophilic and hydrophobic portion o Ribosomes : Make proteins like a factory. Consists of RNA protein complexes; has free and attached ribosomes in cells (attached to endoplasmic reticulum) o Lysosomes : Cell's clean - up crew. Gets rid of waste like a sanitation worker; Function is autodigestion and autophagy aka intracellular digestion; Originate from the golgi complex o Mitochondria "Powerhouse" of the cell. Makes energy for the cell like a power plant. Area for cellular respiration (oxidative phosphorylation) produces ATP = energy source; oxidative process. o Endoplasmic reticulum : tubular saclike channels has smooth vs rough structures; rough portion is studded with ribosomes. Function: site of protein synthesis via ribosomes and senses cellular stress; Gets it ready for transport . Smooth is the absence of ribosomes , lipid metabolism o Golgi apparatus : Flattened smooth membrane, has secretory vesicles and cisternae; receives proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum and are packaged in the Golgi complex into vesicle to be secreted by cell when needed; Function: refining plant involve modifying, sorting, and packaging of proteins o Lipid bilayer : Three major types of membrane lipids are cholesterol, phospholipids, and glycolipids. → function to prevent water soluble molecules from crossing membrane Downloaded by Studymerit Dotcom (samuelkaruiki40@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|6879242

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2 • Apoptosis vs Necrosis • Apoptosis = programmed cell death; internal clock; considered physiological. • Necrosis (autolysis) = considered pathological. There are no inflammatory changes whereas necrosis includes inflammatory changes. • Type of necrosis . • Coagulative : denaturation of proteins, typically affects kidneys. Jelly - like state to a firm state • Fat : caused by lipases – soap - like ; saponification. Breast, pancreas, and abdominal structures • Liquefactive : typically affects neurons/glial cells in the brain; cells digested by their own hydrolases – tissue becomes soft; walled off from healthy tissues FORMING CYSTS • Caseous : a combination of two, hard shell on the outside, liquid on inside; a combo of coagulative and liquefactive. Cells denature, but debris is walled off. Common in TB patients called Ghon complex which is radiographic findings in X - rays • Gangrenous necrosis : Dry vs Wet gangrene Dry gangrene occurs when the blood supply to tissue is cut off. The area becomes dry, shrinks, and turns black. Wet gangrene occurs if bacteria invade this tissue; diabetic gangrene. • Know the terms: atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia, dysplasia, anaplasia. • Atrophy : Decrease/shrinkage in cellular size. is wasting away, especially as a result of the degeneration of cells, or become vestigial during evolution. It can be due to decreased nutrition, ischemia, reduced stimulation. Example, Rhabdo • Hypertrophy ; Increase in number of cells (organs). The enlargement of an organ or tissue from the increase in size of its cells. From constant stimulation. Can be physiological → exercising large muscles; can be pathological → cardiomegaly • Hyperplasia : Increase in number of cells . The enlargement of an organ or tissue caused by an increase in the reproduction rate of its cells, often as an initial stage in cancer development. Example: endothelial lining uterus before periods builds up layers before shedding. moles; breasts getting b igger post pregnancy • Metaplasia : Reversible replacement of one mature cell type by another (epithelium changes in smokers) A protective, potentially reversible if the stimulus is removed; phenotypic change in which differentiated cells of one type are replaced by a different and less mature cell type; takes time. Similar to dysplasia, however reversible. Example: Barrett's e sophagus from smoking • Dysplasia : abnormal changes in size, shape and organization of mature cells (can lead to cervical cancer).Acute confusional states, deficits in attention and coherence of thoughts and action, Secondary to drug intoxication, metabolic disorders, nervous system diseas es, or brain damage. Disorganized appearance of the cell because of abnormal appearance of cell shape size and arrangement. High chance of being cancerous. Not reversible. Examples: carcinomas Downloaded by Studymerit Dotcom (samuelkaruiki40@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|6879242

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3 • Anaplasia : lack of cellular differentiation; cancer cells that divide rapidly and have little or no resemblance to normal cells. Can no longer differentiate on a cellular level • Understand the genetic diseases (Autosomal dominant, Autosomal recessive, x - linked dominant, x - linked recessive). Know the examples. o Autosomal dominant : A genetic trait that only requires one copy of the dominant allele on an autosomal chromosome for the trait to be expressed; example: Huntington's disease. o Autosomal recessive : A genetic trait that requires two copies of the recessive allele on autosomal chromosomes for the trait to be expressed; example: cystic fibrosis. o X - linked dominant : A genetic trait carried on the X chromosome, and one copy of the dominant allele is sufficient for expression; example: Rett syndrome. o X - linked recessive : A genetic trait carried on the X chromosome, and expression requires two copies of the recessive allele; example: hemophilia A. • Genetics: BRCA1 and BRCA2 o Tumor suppressor genes inactivated o Associated with increased risk of breast, ovarian, prostate, and pancreatic cancer o Inherited defect provides 50% risk of developing breast cancer • Symptom of Trisomy21 • Down syndrome : Trisomy 21=(XXX) 3x’s, Trisomy 21 with physical & mental disorders, 80% reach age 60, 95% of down syndrome =non - disjunctions,1%mosaic 9some trisomy, some normal), 4% Translocation (chromosome 14 has extra 21 genes) • Physical features : slanting eyes, small chin, round face, flat nasal bridge, Brushfield spots in the iris, abnormal outer ears, clinodactyly (single palmar crease), and flattened nose • Cause of the damage due to Carbon monoxide o Carbon Monoxide poisoning - SPO2 monitors what is bound to Hgb but not specific molecules; carbon monoxide binds up the same as oxygen so SPO2 appears normal but RBCs bound with carbon monoxide which causes Tissue damage because cells are deprived of oxygen leading to tissue necrosis. Supplemental oxygen is needed o Free radical generation and mitochondrial collapse • Neural tube defect: protein indicator o Alpha - fetoprotein • Know Autoimmune diseases (select all that apply) o Grave Disease o Myasthenia Gravis o Rheumatoid Arthritis o Hashimoto’s Downloaded by Studymerit Dotcom (samuelkaruiki40@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|6879242

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