Culture And Psychology, 6th Edition Test Bank

Chapter 2 Cross-Cultural Research Methods 1. During a cross-cultural study, if a scale was validated in one culture, it can be assumed that it is equally valid in any other culture. a) True b) False ANS: b A-head: Types of Cross-Cultural Research REF: 33 Feedback: During a cross-cultural study, if a scale was validated in one culture, there is no reason to assume that it is equally valid in any other culture.It would have to be equivalently valid in all the cultures it was to be used; else, data derived from its measurement would not be comparable across cultures. 2. _____ is the degree to which a finding, measurement, or statistic is accurate, or represents what it is supposed to. a) Validity b) Reliability c) Response bias d) Regression analysis ANS: a A-head: Types of Cross-Cultural Research REF: 33 Feedback:Validity is the degree to which a finding, measurement, or statistic is accurate, or represents what it is supposed to. It is one of the two concepts that are extremely important to all researchers, cross-cultural or not. 3. _____ is the degree to which a finding, measurement, or statistic is consistent. a) Validity b) Reliability c) Bias d) Equivalence ANS: b A-head: Types of Cross-Cultural Research REF: 33 Feedback:Reliability refers to whether the scale, test, or measure does so consistently. Reliability is one of the two concepts that are extremely important to all researchers, cross-cultural or not. 4. In order to ensure cross-cultural measurement equivalence of the measure used, studies should be conducted to test the reliability and validity of measures in different cultures. a) True b) False 1 ANS: a A-head: Types of Cross-Cultural Research REF: 33–34 Feedback: Cross-cultural researchers are concerned with equivalence in validity of their measures, scales, and tests. And importantly, just translating a measure does not ensure measurement equivalence; there is a need to conduct studies to test the reliability and validity of measures in different cultures in order to be sure they can be used in the various cultures, thereby ensuring the cross-cultural measurement equivalence of the measure used. 5. _____ use rich, complex, and in-depth descriptions of cultures and cultural differences to predict and test for differences in a psychological variable. a) Level-oriented studies b) Indigenous cultural studies c) Multi-level studies d) Cross-cultural validation studies ANS: b A-head: Types of Cross-Cultural Research REF: 34 Feedback: Studies that use rich, complex, and in-depth descriptions of cultures and cultural differences to predict and test for differences in a psychological variable are called indigenous cultural studies. A basic philosophy underlying this approach is that psychological processes and behaviors can only be understood within the cultural milieu within which it occurs. 6. _____ test the equivalence of psychological measures and tests for use in other crosscultural comparative research, and they are important to conduct before cross-cultural comparisons. a) Cross-cultural validation studies b) Cross-cultural comparisons c) Multi-level comparisons d) Individual-level studies ANS: a A-head: Types of Cross-Cultural Research REF: 34 Feedback: Cross-cultural validation studies examine whether a measure of a psychological construct that was originally generated in a single culture is applicable, meaningful, and most importantly psychometrically equivalent in another culture. These studies do not test a specific hypothesis about cultural differences; rather, they test the equivalence of psychological measures and tests for use in other cross-cultural comparative research, and they are important to conduct before cross-cultural comparisons. 7. _____ are studies that compare cultures on some psychological variable of interest,often with the hypothesis that one culture will have significantly higher scores on the variable than the other(s). 2 a) International research comparisons b) Cross-cultural comparisons c) Indigenous cultural studies d) Linkage studies ANS: b A-head: Types of Cross-Cultural Research REF: 35 Feedback: Cross-cultural comparisons are studies that compare two or more cultures on some psychological variable of interest, often with the hypothesis that one culture will have significantly higher scores on the variable than the other(s). They are the most prevalent type of cross-cultural study in psychology and serve as the backbone of crosscultural research. 8. _____ make larger inferential jumps by testing theories of cross-cultural similarities and differences. a) Hypothesis-testing studies b) Exploratory studies c) Cultural studies d) Linkage studies ANS: a A-head: Types of Cross-Cultural Comparisons REF: 35 Feedback:Hypothesis-testing studies are designed to examine why cultural differences may exist. Thus, these studies make larger inferential jumps by testing theories of cross-cultural similarities and differences. 9. Studies that examine cultural differences in mean levels of variables are called _____. a) level-oriented studies b) structural-oriented studies c) hypothesis-level studies d) exploratory studies ANS: a A-head: Types of Cross-Cultural Comparisons REF: 36 Feedback:Studies that examine cultural differences in mean levels of variables are called level-oriented studies. They involve the comparisons of mean levels of scores between cultures. 10. _____ involve any variable that can explain, partly or fully, cross-cultural differences when they are observed in a study. a) Demographic factors b) Multi-level studies c) Contextual factors d) Structure-oriented studies ANS: c A-head: Types of Cross-Cultural Comparisons 3 REF: 36 Feedback:One way to differentiate cross-cultural studies from each other refers to the presence or absence of contextual factorsin the design. Contextual factors involve any variable that can explain, partly or fully, cross-cultural differences when they are observed in a study(Poortinga, van de Vijver, Joe, & van de Koppel, 1987). 11. Studies that examine whether constructs are conceptualized the same way across cultures, the relationship of a construct to other constructs, or the measurement of a construct are called _____. a) level-oriented studies b) structure-oriented studies c) individual-level studies d) ecological-level studies ANS: b A-head: Types of Cross-Cultural Comparisons REF: 36 Feedback:Studies that examine whether constructs are conceptualized the same way across cultures, the relationship of a construct to other constructs, or the measurement of a construct are called structure-oriented studies. They involve comparisons of constructs, their structures, or their relationships with other constructs. 12. _____ use countries or cultures as the unit of analysis. a) Ecological-level studies b) Individual-levelstudies c) Hypothesis-testing studies d) Linkage studies ANS: a A-head: Types of Cross-Cultural Comparisons REF: 36–37 Feedback:Ecological- or cultural-level studiesuse countries or cultures asthe unit of analysis. Data may be obtained from individuals in different cultures, but they are often summarized or averaged for each culture and those averages are used as data points for each culture. 13. _____ are studies that use data from both individual and ecological levels, and incorporate the use of sophisticated statistical techniques that examine the relationship of data at one level to data at another. a) Exploratory studies b) Multi-level studies c) Individual-level studies d) Hypothesis-testing studies ANS: b A-head: Types of Cross-Cultural Comparisons REF: 38 Feedback:Multi-level studies are studies that use data from both individual and ecological levels, and incorporate the use of sophisticated statistical techniques that examine the 4 relationship of data at one level to data at another. Cross-cultural comparisons in the future will increasingly involve this type of multi-level approach. 14. Sophisticated statistical techniques and elegant research designs are effective at ―salvaging‖ studies that are lacking in novelty or insight. a) True b) False ANS: b A-head: Designing Cross-Cultural Comparative Research REF: 38 Feedback: Sometimes researchers focus on designing the methodology of a study or using new statistics without considering adequately what research question should be addressed in the first place. Sophisticated statistical techniques and elegant research designs cannot ―salvage‖ studies that are neither novel nor insightful. 15. Linkage studies merely document differences between cultures on some psychological variable and are unable to state whether the source of the differences is cultural or not. a) True b) False ANS: b A-head: Designing Cross-Cultural Comparative Research REF: 39 Feedback: An exploratory study that merely documents differences between cultures on some psychological variable cannot say anything about whether the source of the differences is cultural or not. Thus most researchers realize that it’s important to empirically establish linkages between the contents of culture and the psychological variables of interest in hypothesis-testing studies. This has led to the emergence of a class of studies called linkage studies that attempt to do just that. 16. _____ are studies that attempt to measure an aspect of culture theoretically hypothesized to produce cultural differences and then empirically link that measured aspect of culture with the dependent variable of interest. a) Indigenous cultural studies b) Multi-level studies c) Exploratory studies d) Linkage studies ANS: d A-head: Designing Cross-Cultural Comparative Research REF: 39 Feedback:Linkage studies are studies that attempt to measure an aspect of culture theoretically hypothesized to produce cultural differences and then empirically link that measured aspect of culture with the dependent variable of interest.There are two types of linkage studies conducted in the field today: unpackaging studies and experiments. 17. _____ are variables that operationalize aspects of culture that researchers believe produce differences in psychological variables. 5 a) Multi-level factors b) Hypothetical variables c) Cultural factors d) Context variables ANS: d A-head: Designing Cross-Cultural Comparative Research REF: 40 Feedback: Variables that operationalize aspects of culture that researchers believe produce differences in psychological variables are called context variables.These variables are actually measured in unpackaging studies. In unpackaging studies, ―culture‖ as an unspecified variable is replaced by more specific variables in order to explain observed differences. These variables are called context variables. 18. Cross-cultural comparisons that include the measurement of a variable (contextual factor) that assesses a cultural factor considered to produce the differences on the target variable being compared across cultures are called_____. a) unpackagingstudies b) multi-level studies c) individual-level studies d) hypothesis-testing studies ANS: a A-head: Designing Cross-Cultural Comparative Research REF: 40 Feedback:Unpackaging studiesare cross-cultural comparisons that include the measurement of a variable (contextual factor) that assesses a cultural factor considered to produce the differences on the target variable being compared across cultures. The underlying thought to these studies is that cultures are like onions, for which layer after layer needs to be peeled off until nothing is left. 19. _____ are often used as context variables to ensure that samples in different cultures actually harbor the cultural characteristics thought to differentiate them. a) Structure-oriented factors b) Ecological- or cultural-level measures of culture c) Individual-level measures of culture d) Contextual factors ANS: c A-head: Designing Cross-Cultural Comparative Research REF: 40 Feedback:Individual-level measures of culture are measures that assess a variable on the individual level that is thought to be a product of culture.They are often used as context variables to ensure that samples in different cultures actually harbor the cultural characteristics thought to differentiate them. 20. In unpackaging studies, ―culture‖ as an unspecified variable is replaced by more specific variables in order to explain observeddifferences. a) True 6 b) False ANS: a A-head: Designing Cross-Cultural Comparative Research REF: 40 Feedback:In unpackaging studies, ―culture‖ as an unspecified variable is replaced by more specific variables in order to explain observed differences. These variables are called context variables. 21. On the individual level, Triandis referred to collectivism as idiocentrism. a) True b) False ANS: b A-head: Designing Cross-Cultural Comparative Research REF: 41 Feedback: The multiple-method approach to measure individualism versus collectivism (IC) used by Triandis and his colleagues included ratings of the social content of the self, perceptions of homogeneity of ingroups and outgroups, attitude and value ratings, and perceptions of social behavior as a function of social distance. Participants were classified as either individualist or collectivist on the basis of their scores on each method. On the individual level, Triandis referred to individualism and collectivism as idiocentrism and allocentrism, respectively (Triandis et al., 1986). 22. Markus and Kitayama (1991b) proposed thatthat individualistic and collectivistic cultures differed in the kinds of self-concepts they fostered, with individualistic cultures encouraging the development of interdependent self-construals, and collectivistic cultures encouraging the development of independent self-construals. a) True b) False ANS: b A-head: Designing Cross-Cultural Comparative Research REF: 41 Feedback: Markus and Kitayama (1991b) proposed that individualistic and collectivistic cultures differed in the kinds of self-concepts they fostered, with individualistic cultures encouraging the development of independent self-construals, and collectivistic cultures encouraging the development of interdependent self-construals. This theoretical advance led to the development of scales measuring independence and interdependence on the individual level, most notably the Self-Construal Scale (Singelis, 1994). 23. _____ refers to how individuals may act in accordance with collectivistic cultural frameworks. a) Individualism b) Centralism c) Idiocentrism d) Allocentrism ANS: d A-head: Designing Cross-Cultural Comparative Research 7 REF: 41 Feedback:Allocentrism refers to how individuals may act in accordance with collectivistic cultural frameworks.On the cultural level, collectivism refers to a how a culture functions. 24. According to Triandis and his colleagues (1995), individuals are autonomous and equal in _____, whereas individuals are autonomous but unequal in _____. a) horizontal individualism; vertical collectivism b) vertical individualism; horizontal collectivism c) horizontal collectivism; vertical individualism d) horizontal individualism; vertical individualism ANS: d A-head: Designing Cross-Cultural Comparative Research REF: 41 Feedback:Triandis and colleagues(Singelis, Triandis, Bhawuk, & Gelfand, 1995) refined their measurement system by including items assessing a revised concept of individualism and collectivism they called ―horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism.‖ In horizontal individualism, individuals are autonomous and equal. In vertical individualism, individuals are autonomous but unequal. 25. Which of the following describes priming studies? a) They involve experimentally manipulating the mindsets of participants and measuring the resulting changes in behavior. b) They test the equivalence of psychological measures and tests for use in a crosscultural comparative research. c) They attempt to establish the linkages between the contents of culture and the variables of interest in the study. d) They examine whether a measure of a psychological construct that was originally generated in a single culture is applicable, meaningful, and thus equivalent in another culture. ANS: a A-head: Designing Cross-Cultural Comparative Research REF: 42 Feedback: Priming studies involve experimentally manipulating the mindsets of participants and measuring the resulting changes in behavior.These are interesting because researchers manipulate mindsets supposedly related to culture in order to see if participants behave differently as a function of the primed mindset. 26. In _____, participants are randomly assigned to participate in the conditions created by researchers and results are then compared across conditions to establish cause–effect relationships. a) ethnographies b) content analyses c) experiments d) exploratory studies ANS: c A-head: Designing Cross-Cultural Comparative Research 8 REF: 42 Feedback: A major type of linkage study is experiments, in which researchers create conditions to establish cause–effect relationships. In these studies, participants are generally assigned randomly to participate in the conditions, and researchers then compare results across conditions. 27. _____ can be defined as a state or condition of similarity in conceptual meaning and empirical method between cultures that allows comparisons to be meaningful. a) Equivalence b) Cross-cultural research c) Operationalization d) Bias ANS: a A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 44 Feedback:Equivalenceis a state or condition of similarity in conceptual meaning and empirical method between cultures that allows comparisons to be meaningful. In conducting and evaluating cross-cultural research, bias and equivalence go hand in hand; bias refers to a state of nonequivalence, and equivalence refers to a state of no bias. 28. In cross-cultural studies, _____ refersto differences that do not have exactly the same meaning within and across cultures. a) bias b) tendency c) inequality d) nominal equivalent ANS: a A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 44 Feedback:Bias refers to differencesthat do not have exactly the same meaning within and across cultures. In a strict sense, the greater the bias in any aspect of a cross-cultural study, the less meaning the comparison has. 29. The degree to which a theory or set of hypotheses being compared across cultures are equivalent—that is, whether they have the same meaning and relevance in all the cultures being comparedis called _____. a) sampling bias b) method bias c) response bias d) conceptual bias ANS: d A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 44–45 Feedback: The degree to which a theory or set of hypotheses being compared across cultures are equivalent—that is, whether they have the same meaning and relevance in all the cultures being comparedis called conceptual bias. A major concern of cross-cultural 9 research is the equivalence in meaning of the overall theoretical framework being tested and the specific hypotheses being addressed. 30. To demonstrate the replicability of a finding across different samples within a culture,sound cross-cultural comparisons would entail the collection of data from multiple sites within the same cultural group, either in the same study or across studies. a) True b) False ANS: a A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 45–46 Feedback:An issue regarding sampling bias concerns whether the samples of a crosscultural comparison are appropriate representatives of their culture. Sound cross-cultural comparisons would entail the collection of data from multiple sites within the same cultural group, either in the same study or across studies, to demonstrate the replicability of a finding across different samples within the same culture. 31. In the context of procedures used to establish linguistic equivalence, which of the following is an accurate description of back translation? a) It involves several bilingual informants collectivelytranslating a research protocol into a target language. b) It involves taking a research protocol in one language, translating it into the target language, and having someone else translate it back to the original. c) It is a procedure used to establish sampling equivalence. d) It is a procedure that involves several bilingual informants debating the various forms, words, and phrases to be used while translating a research protocol to a target language. ANS: b A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 46 Feedback: Back translation is one of the two procedures used to establish linguistic equivalence. It involves taking the research protocol in one language, translating it to the other language, and having someone else translate it back to the original. 32. Identify the term that describes the concept underlying the procedure of back translation that involves eliminating any culture-specific concepts of the original language or translating them equivalently into the target language. a) Decenter b) Operationalization c) Cultural attribution fallacy d) Cultural allocentrism ANS: a A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 46 Feedback: The term ―decenter‖ refers to the concept underlying the procedure of back translation that involves eliminating any culture-specific concepts of the original language 10 or translating them equivalently into the target language. Back translation involves taking the research protocol in one language, translating it to the other language, and having someone else translate it back to the original. 33. The _____ is an approach to establishing language equivalence, in whichseveral bilingual informants collectively translate a research protocol into a target language. a) decentered approach b) metalingual approach c) procedural approach d) committee approach ANS: d A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 47 Feedback:In the committee approach to establishing language equivalence, several bilingual informants collectively translate a research protocol into a target language. They debate the various forms, words, and phrases that can be used in the target language, comparing them with their understanding of the language of the original protocol. 34. One of the most important lessons to learn about cross-cultural research methods is that linguistic equivalence alone does not guarantee measurement equivalence. a) True b) False ANS: a A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 47 Feedback: One of the most important lessons to learn about cross-cultural research methods is that linguistic equivalence alone does not guarantee measurement equivalence. This is because even if the words being used in the two languages are the same, there is no guarantee that those words have exactly the same meanings, with the same nuances, in the two cultures. 35. _____ is a statistical technique that allows researchers to create groups of items on a questionnaire with each group assessing a single underlying psychological construct (or trait). a) Factor analysis b) Regression analysis c) Pretest analysis d) Effect size analysis ANS: a A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 48 Feedback: Factor analysis is a technique to examine the structure of a questionnaire. Factor analysis creates groups of the items on a questionnaire based on how the responses to them are related to each other. 11 36. _____ refers to the degree to which different measures used in a cross-cultural comparison study are statistically equivalent in the cultures being compared—that is, whether the measures are equally valid and reliable in all cultures studied. a) Psychometric equivalence b) Operationalization c) Linguistic bias d) Procedural equivalence ANS: a A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 48 Feedback:Psychometric equivalence refers to the degree to which different measures used in a cross-cultural comparison study are statistically equivalent in the cultures being compared—that is, whether the measures are equally valid and reliable in all cultures studied.One of the most important ways to ascertain psychometric equivalence, especially when using questionnaires to collect data (which is used in many cross-cultural studies), is to determine whether the questionnaires in the different languages have the same structure. 37. Psychometric equivalence can be ascertained by: a) examining the internal reliability of the measures across cultures. b) translating a research protocol to a target language with the help of bilingual informants. c) examining whether cross-cultural samples compared are appropriate representatives of their culture. d) creating conditions to establish cause–effect relationships. ANS: a A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 48 Feedback:Psychometric equivalence can be ascertained in several different ways. One of the ways is by examining the internal reliabilityof the measures across cultures. Internal reliability can be assessed by examining whether the items on a questionnaire are all related to each other. 38. _____ is the tendency to give answers that make oneself look good. a) Psychometric equivalence b) Response bias c) Socially desirable responding d) Internal reliability ANS: c A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 48 Feedback:Socially desirable respondingis the tendency to give answers that make oneself look good (Paulhus, 1984), and it may be that people of certain cultures have greater concerns that lead them to respond in socially desirable ways than people of other cultures.There are two facets of socially desirable responding, which include selfdeceptive enhancement—seeing oneself in a positive light—and impression management. 12 39. A systematic tendency to respond in a certain way to items or scales is referred to as a: a) systematic equivalence. b) contextual response. c) response bias. d) structural bias. ANS: c A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 48 Feedback:A response biasis a systematic tendency to respond in a certain way to items or scales.If response biases exist, then it is difficult to compare data between cultures because it is not clear whether differences refer to ―true‖ differences in what is being measured or are merely differences in how people respond using scales. 40. The two facets of socially desirable responding tendencies are self-deceptive enhancement and _____. a) dramaturgy b) personality modification c) impression management d) self-efficacy ANS: c A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 48 Feedback:Socially desirable responding, a type of response bias, is the tendency to give answers that make oneself look good. There are two facets of socially desirable responding, which include self-deceptive enhancement—seeing oneself in a positive light— and impression management. 41. _____ is the degree to which a measure used in a cross-cultural study produces the same factor analysis results in the different countries being compared. a) Linguistic equivalence b) Measurement equivalence c) Structural equivalence d) Sampling equivalence ANS: c A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 48 Feedback: The degree to which a measure used in a cross-cultural study produces the same factor analysis results in the different countries being compared is called structural equivalence. If a measure is not structurally equivalent, it suggests that people of different cultural groups have different mental constructs operating when responding to the same questionnaire. Thus, their responses may not be comparable to each other. 42. The tendency to agree rather than disagree with items on questionnaires is termed as _____. a) reference group effect 13 b) acquiescence bias c) ratchet effect d) procedural bias ANS: b A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 50 Feedback: Acquiescence bias, a type of response bias, is the tendency to agree rather than disagree with items on questionnaires. A systematic tendency to respond in certain ways to items or scales is known as response bias. 43. The idea of _____ is based on the notion that people make implicit social comparisons with others when making ratings on scales, rather than relying on direct inferences about a private, personal value system (Peng, Nisbett, & Wong, 1997). a) acquiescence bias b) extreme response bias c) reference group effect d) implication effect ANS: c A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 50 Feedback:Reference group effect is a type of response bias. This idea is based on the notion that people make implicit social comparisons with others when making ratings on scales, rather than relying on direct inferences about a private, personal value system (Peng, Nisbett, & Wong, 1997). 44. In the past, response biases were viewed as methodological artifacts that needed to be controlled in order to get to ―true‖ responses, but today, there is a growing view of them as an important part of cultural influence on data. a) True b) False ANS: a A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 50 Feedback:In the past, response biases were viewed as methodological artifacts that needed to be controlled in order to get to ―true‖ responses. Today, however, there is a growing view of them as an important part of cultural influence on data. 45. _____refers to the tendency to use the ends of a scale regardless of item content. a) Acquiescence bias b) Extreme response bias c) Cultural attribution fallacy d) Reference group effect ANS: b A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 50 14 Feedback:A response biasis a systematic tendency to respond in a certain way to items or scales. Extreme response bias is a type of response bias which refers to the tendency to use the ends of a scale regardless of item content. 46. According to Poortinga (1989), which of the following is a strategy to deal with nonequivalent data? a) Decentering the nonequivalence b) Establishing cause–effect relationships c) Increasing the nonequivalence in the data d) Precluding comparison ANS: d A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 51 Feedback: Precluding comparison is one of the four different ways outlined by Poortinga (1989) by which the problem of nonequivalence of cross-cultural data can be handled. The most conservative thing a researcher could do is not make the comparison in the first place, concluding that it would be meaningless. 47. Which of the following compares the differences observed between the groups to the differences one would normally expect on the basis of chance alone and then compute the probability that the results would have been obtained solely by chance? a) Regression analysis b) Analysis of variance (ANOVA) c) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) d) Group mean comparisons ANS: b A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 51 Feedback:In testing cultural differences on target variables of interest, researchers often use inferential statistics such as chi-square or analysis of variance (ANOVA) and engage in what is known as null hypothesis significance testing. These statistics compare the differences observed between the groups to the differences one would normally expect on the basis of chance alone and then compute the probability that the results would have been obtained solely by chance. 48. According to Matsumoto and his colleagues, the general class of statistical procedures that helps to determine the degree to which differences in mean values reflect meaningful differences among individuals is called _____. a) between-group statistics b) effect size statistics c) analysis of variance d) multivariate analysis of variance ANS: b A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 51 15 Feedback:Statistical procedures are available that help to determine the degree to which differences in mean values reflect meaningful differences among individuals. The general class of statistics is called ―effect size statistics‖; when used in a cross-cultural setting, they are known as ―cultural effect size statistics‖ (Matsumoto, Grissom, & Dinnel, 2001). 49. Culture can bias the ways researchers interpret their findings. a) True b) False ANS: a A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 52 Feedback:Culture can bias the ways researchers interpret their findings. Most researchers inevitably interpret the data they obtain through their own cultural filters, and these biases can affect their interpretations to varying degrees. 50. In the context of mistaken interpretations in cross-cultural comparison studies, _____ occur when researchers infer that something cultural produced the differences they observed in their study, despite the fact that they may not be empirically justified in doing so because they did not actually measure those cultural factors. a) interpretation errors b) false empirical justifications c) cultural attribution fallacies d) cultural barriers ANS: c A-head: Bias and Equivalence REF: 53 Feedback:One type of mistaken interpretation is to suggest specific reasons why cultural differences occurred even though the specific reasons were never measured in the study. Matsumoto and Yoo (2006) call these cultural attribution fallacies, which occur when researchers claim that between-group differences are cultural when they really have no empirical justification to do so. 16